Xiaogang zhu biography of christopher
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1 Introduction
Over the past decade, lanthanide-doped nanoparticles have left their mark as efficient luminescent nanomaterials [1]. In contrast to conventional luminescent materials, such as fluorescent organic dyes and semiconducting nanoparticles, lanthanide-doped nanoparticles generally offer narrow emission bands, long luminescence lifetimes (micro- to millisecond range), low toxicity, as well as high resistance to photobleaching, blinking, and photochemical degradation [2]. In particular, the lanthanide-doped nanoparticles comprising proper host–dopant combinations can convert near infrared long-wavelength excitation radiation into shorter-wavelength visible emissions [3]. These unique anti-Stokes emitters, now widely known as upconversion nanoparticles, have evolved as a rapidly growing field and opened up the opportunity for creating new applications in diverse fields such as displays, solar cells, and biological assays [4].
Upconversion nanoparticles are typically composed of an inorganic host lattice and lanthanide dopant ions embedded in the host lattice [3]. Although the upconversion process primarily makes use of the ladder-like arranged 4f energy levels of the lanthanide dopant ions, the host lattice can significantly alter the upconversion processes by exertin